Pages 589-592
Short Communication
Meytal Raizes*, Odelia Elkana*, Motty Franko, Ramit Ravona Springer, Shlomo Segev, Michal Schnaider Beeri *These authors contributed equally to this work.
Higher Fasting Plasma Glucose Levels, within the Normal Range, are Associated with Decreased Processing Speed in High Functioning Young Elderly
Abstract: We explored the association of plasma glucose levels within the normal range with processing speed in high functioning young elderly, free of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). A sample of 41 participants (mean age=64.7, SD=10; glucose 94.5 mg/dL, SD=9.3), were examined with a computerized cognitive battery. Hierarchical linear regression analysis showed that higher plasma glucose levels, albeit within the normal range (<110 mg/dL), were associated with longer reaction times (p<0.01). These findings suggest that even in the subclinical range and in the absence of T2DM, monitoring plasma glucose levels may have an impact on cognitive function.
Pages 593-605
Andreas Johnen*, Jana Frommeyer, Fenja Modes, Heinz Wiendl, Thomas Duning*, Hubertus Lohmann* (Handling Associate Editor: Thomas Benke) *These authors contributed equally to this work.
Dementia Apraxia Test (DATE): A Brief Tool to Differentiate Behavioral Variant Frontotemporal Dementia from Alzheimer’s Dementia based on Apraxia Profiles
Abstract: Background: Standardized praxis assessments with modern, empirically validated screening tests have substantially improved clinical evaluation of apraxia in patients with stroke. Although apraxia may contribute to early differential diagnosis of Alzheimer’s dementia (AD) and behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD), no comparable test is readily available to clinicians for this purpose to date. Objective: To design a clinically useful apraxia test for the differentiation of AD and bvFTD. Methods: 84 test items pertaining to twelve praxis subdomains were evaluated for their efficacy to discriminate between patients with bvFTD (n=24), AD (n=28), and elderly healthy controls (HC; n=35). Items were then selected based on discriminative value and psychometric properties. Results: Items indicative of mild AD comprised spatially complex imitation of hand and finger postures and to a lesser degree, pantomime of common object-use. Buccofacial apraxia including imitation of face postures, emblematic face postures, and repetition of multisyllabic pseudowords differentiated bvFTD from HC and AD. The final test version consisting of 20 items proved highly efficient for the discrimination of biologically confirmed dementia patients from HC (sensitivity 91%, specificity 71%) but also for differential diagnosis of bvFTD and AD (sensitivity 74%, specificity 93%). Conclusions: Assessment of praxis profiles effectively contributes to diagnosis and differential diagnosis of AD and bvFTD. The Dementia Apraxia Test (DATE) is a brief and easy to administer cognitive tool for dementia assessment, has a high inter-rater reliability (Cohen’s κ=0.885) and demonstrates content validity.
Pages 607-616
Odelia Elkana*, Osnat Reichman Eisikovits*, Noga Oren, Vered Betzale, Nir Giladi, Elissa L. Ash (Handling Associate Editor: Illana Gozes) *These authors contributed equally to this work.
Sensitivity of Neuropsychological Tests to Identify Cognitive Decline in Highly Educated Elderly Individuals: 12 Months Follow Up
Abstract: Highly educated individuals have a lower risk of developing dementia and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). A common assumption is that their "cognitive reserve" protects them from cognitive decline and postpones the clinical manifestation of dementia. These highly educated individuals usually obtain normal scores on cognitive screening tests, although at the same time they can experience subjective cognitive decline and difficulty in multiple cognitive domains. Although comprehensive neuropsychological evaluations usually identify subtle changes in cognition, they demand extensive resources and thus are expensive and difficult to obtain. Therefore, lack of sensitivity of screening tests on the one hand, along with difficulty to acquire a comprehensive neuropsychological evaluation on the other hand, impede identification of cognitive decline at its earliest stages in this special population. Accordingly, this study aims to identify which neuropsychological tests have the highest sensitivity to detect the earliest stages of cognitive decline among highly educated elderly [n=27, ages 66-80 (mean = 72.6 SD=4.54), mean education level = 17.14 (SD=3.21 range: 12-24 years)]. Baseline scores and scores at one-year follow up were obtained. We also conducted MRI scans to characterize the relation between brain volume and cognitive performance. Results show significant reductions in RVALT, Semantic verbal Fluency, ROCF copy, and MoCA scores whereas PF, TMT, ROCF delay, digit span, and knowledge tests were not significant. The study stresses the importance of using sensitive neuropsychological tests to examine this special population and the need to create norms that combine an individual's education with age.
Pages 617-631
Bruno Dubois, Alessandro Padovani, Philip Scheltens, Andrea Rossi, Grazia Dell’Agnello (Handling Associate Editor: Andrew Saykin)
Timely Diagnosis for Alzheimer’s Disease: A Literature Review on Benefits and Challenges
Abstract: Background: Timely diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) refers to a diagnosis at the stage when patients come to the attention of clinicians because of concerns about changes in cognition, behavior, or functioning and can be still free of dementia and functionally independent. Objectives: To comprehensively review existing scientific evidence on the benefits and potential challenges of making a timely diagnosis of AD. Methods: Relevant studies were identified by searching electronic databases (Medline, Embase) and bibliographies for studies published in English between 1 January 2000 and 2 June 2014 on the consequences of a timely diagnosis of AD. Results: Nine studies were identified that investigated the consequences of diagnosing AD at the initial stages, none were specifically focused on prodromal AD. A timely diagnosis potentially offers the opportunities of early intervention, implementation of coordinated care plans, better management of symptoms, patient safety, cost savings, and postponement of institutionalization. Barriers to making a timely diagnosis include stigma, suicide risk, lack of training, diagnostic uncertainty, shortage of specialized diagnostic services, and the reluctance of healthcare providers to make a diagnosis when no effective disease-modifying options are available. Conclusions: Despite its potential benefits, few published studies have explored the advantages or risks of a timely diagnosis of AD. In light of the cultural shift toward diagnosis at the initial stage of the disease continuum, when the patient does not yet have dementia, more investigations are needed to evaluate the benefits and address the barriers that may impede making a timely AD diagnosis.
Pages 633-643
Ajay Madhavan, Christopher G. Schwarz, Joseph R. Duffy, Edythe A. Strand, Mary M. Machulda, Daniel A. Drubach, Kejal Kantarci, Scott A. Przybelski, Robert I. Reid, Matthew L. Senjem, Jeffrey L. Gunter, Liana G. Apostolova, Val J. Lowe, Ronald C. Petersen, Clifford R. Jack Jr., Keith A. Josephs, Jennifer L. Whitwell (Handling Associate Editor: Bing Zhang)
Characterizing White Matter Tract Degeneration in Syndromic Variants of Alzheimer's Disease: A Diffusion Tensor Imaging Study
Abstract: Background: Different clinical syndromes can arise from Alzheimer’s disease (AD) neuropathology, including dementia of the Alzheimer’s type (DAT), logopenic primary progressive aphasia (lvPPA), and posterior cortical atrophy (PCA). Objective: To assess similarities and differences in patterns of white matter tract degeneration across these syndromic variants of AD. Methods: Sixty-four subjects (22 DAT, 24 lvPPA, and 18 PCA) that had diffusion tensor imaging and showed amyloid-β deposition on PET were assessed in this case-control study. A whole-brain voxel-based analysis was performed to assess differences in fractional anisotropy, mean diffusivity, axial diffusivity, and radial diffusivity across groups. Results: All three groups showed overlapping diffusion abnormalities in a network of tracts, including fornix, corpus callosum, posterior thalamic radiations, superior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior longitudinal fasciculus, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, and uncinate fasciculus. Subtle regional differences were also observed across groups, with DAT particularly associated with degeneration of fornix and cingulum, lvPPA with left inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus and uncinate fasciculus, and PCA with posterior thalamic radiations, superior longitudinal fasciculus, posterior cingulate, and splenium of the corpus callosum. Conclusion: These findings show that while each AD phenotype is associated with degeneration of a specific structural network of white matter tracts, striking spatial overlap exists among the three network patterns that may be related to AD pathology.
Pages 645-657
Emma C. Pinnock*, Katarina Jovanovic*, Maxine G. Pinto, Eloise Ferreira, Bianca Da Costa Dias, Clement Penny, Stefan Knackmuss, Uwe Reusch, Melvyn Little, Hermann M. Schatzl, Stefan F.T. Weiss *These authors contributed equally to this work.
LRP/LR Antibody Mediated Rescuing of Amyloid-β-Induced Cytotoxicity is Dependent on PrPc in Alzheimer’s Disease
Abstract: The neuronal perturbations in Alzheimer’s disease are attributed to the formation of extracellular amyloid-β (Aβ) neuritic plaques, composed predominantly of the neurotoxic Aβ42 isoform. Although the plaques have demonstrated a role in synaptic dysfunction, neuronal cytotoxicity has been attributed to soluble Aβ42 oligomers. The 37kDa/67kDa laminin receptor has been implicated in Aβ42 shedding and Aβ42-induced neuronal cytotoxicity, as well as internalization of this neurotoxic peptide. As the cellular prion protein binds to both LRP/LR and Aβ42, the mechanism underlying this cytotoxicity may be indirectly due to the PrPc-Aβ42 interaction with LRP/LR. The effects of this interaction were investigated by 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assays. PrPc overexpression significantly enhanced Aβ42 cytotoxicity in vitro, while PrP-/- cells were more resistant to the cytotoxic effects of Aβ42 and exhibited significantly less cell death than PrPc expressing N2a cells. Although anti-LRP/LR specific antibody IgG1-iS18 significantly enhanced cell viability in both pSFV1-huPrP1-253 transfected and non-transfected cells treated with exogenous Aβ42, it failed to have any cell rescuing effect in PrP-/- HpL3-4 cells. These results suggest that LRP/LR plays a significant role in Aβ42-PrPc mediated cytotoxicity and that anti-LRP/LR specific antibodies may serve as potential therapeutic tools for Alzheimer’s disease.
Pages 659-669
Nicola Voyle, Aoife Keohane, Stephen Newhouse, Katie Lunnon, Caroline Johnston, Hilkka Soininen, Iwona Kloszewska, Patrizia Mecocci, Magda Tsolaki, Bruno Vellas, Simon Lovestone, on behalf of the AddNeuroMed consortium, Angela Hodges, Steven Kiddle, and Richard JB Dobson (Handling Associate Editor: Gary Arendash)
A Pathway Based Classification Method for Analyzing Gene Expression for Alzheimer’s Disease Diagnosis
Abstract: Background: Recent studies indicate that gene expression levels in blood may be able to differentiate subjects with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) from normal elderly controls and mild cognitively impaired (MCI) subjects. However, there is limited replicability at the single marker level. A pathway-based interpretation of gene expression may prove more robust. Objectives: This study aimed to investigate whether a case/control classification model built on pathway level data was more robust than a gene level model and may consequently perform better in test data. The study used two batches of gene expression data from the AddNeuroMed (ANM) and Dementia Case Registry (DCR) cohorts. Methods: Our study used Illumina Human HT-12 Expression BeadChips to collect gene expression from blood samples. Random forest modeling with recursive feature elimination was used to predict case/control status. Age and APOE ε4 status were used as covariates for all analysis. Results: Gene and pathway level models performed similarly to each other and to a model based on demographic information only. Conclusions: Any potential increase in concordance from the novel pathway level approach used here has not lead to a greater predictive ability in these datasets. However, we have only tested one method for creating pathway level scores. Further, we have been able to benchmark pathways against genes in datasets that had been extensively harmonized. Further work should focus on the use of alternative methods for creating pathway level scores, in particular those that incorporate pathway topology, and the use of an endophenotype based approach.
Pages 671-680
Agnès Jacquin-Piques, Guillaume Sacco, Neda Tavassoli, Olivier Rouaud, Yannick Bejot, Maurice Giroud, Philippe Robert, Bruno Vellas, Sylvie Bonin-Guillaume
Psychotropic Drug Prescription in Patients with Dementia: Nursing Home Residents versus Patients Living at Home
Abstract: Background. Psychotropic drugs are frequently prescribed in nursing homes (NH). Nonetheless, we hoped that institutionalization decreases the number of psychotropic drug classes prescribed, because NH residents may have more psychosocial interventions than patients living at home. Objective. The aim was to compare the type and number of psychotropic drugs prescribed in elderly NH residents with dementia with those in community-living patients. Methods. This cross-sectional study included elderly patients (at least 75 years old) with dementia recorded in the National Alzheimer’s data Bank (“Banque Nationale Alzheimer”) during the year 2012 and who were taking at least one psychotropic drug. Psychotropic drugs were classified as follows: antidepressant, anxiolytic, hypnotic, and antipsychotic drugs. Patients were classified into three categories of dementia severity according to the MMSE score. Results. Among the 50,932 patients with dementia recorded in the BNA, 40.1% had at least one psychotropic drug prescribed. Most of the patients who were treated by at least one psychotropic drug class had antidepressant therapy (69.0%), whatever their residence type, and 16.1% were treated with antipsychotics. Among the study population, 51.9% of the NH residents and 67.4% of the patients living at home had only one psychotropic drug class prescribed. Living in a NH was significantly associated with the more frequent prescription of anxiolytic, hypnotic, and antipsychotic drugs, and with a greater number of psychotropic drug classes prescribed, whatever the severity of the dementia. Conclusion. We underlined the more frequent prescription of psychotropic drugs in NH residents regardless of MMSE scores.
iPages 681-693
Priyanjalee Banerjee, Arghyadip Sahoo, Shruti Anand, Aritri Bir, Sasanka Chakrabarti (Handling Associate Editor: Neelima Chauhan)
The Oral Iron Chelator, Deferasirox, Reverses the Age-Dependent Alterations in Iron and Amyloid-β Homeostasis in Rat Brain: Implications in the Therapy of Alzheimer’s Disease
Abstract: The altered metabolism of iron impacts the brain function in multiple deleterious ways during normal aging as well as in Alzheimer's disease. We have shown in this study that chelatable iron accumulates in the aged rat brain along with overexpression of transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1) and ferritin, accompanied by significant alterations in amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide homeostasis in the aging brain, such as an increased production of the amyloid-β protein precursor, a decreased level of neprilysin, and increased accumulation of Aβ42. When aged rats are given daily the iron chelator, deferasirox, over a period of more than 4 months starting from the 18th month, the age-related accumulation of iron and overexpression of TfR1 and ferritin in the brain are significantly prevented. More interestingly, the chelator treatment also considerably reverses the altered Aβ peptide metabolism in the aging brain implying a significant role of iron in the latter phenomenon. Further, other results indicate that iron accumulation results in oxidative stress and the activation of NF-κB in the aged rat brain, which are also reversed by the deferasirox treatment. The analysis of the results together suggests that iron accumulation and oxidative stress interact at multiple levels that include transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms to bring about changes in the expression levels of TfR1 and ferritin also as alterations in Aβ peptide metabolism in the aging rat brain. The efficacy of deferasirox in preventing age-related changes in iron and Aβ peptide metabolism in the aging brain, as shown here, has obvious therapeutic implications for Alzheimer's disease.
Pages 695-705
David Bergeron, Jean-Mathieu Beauregard, Jean Guimond, Marie-Pierre Fortin, Michèle Houde, Stéphane Poulin, Louis Verret, Rémi W. Bouchard, Robert Laforce, Jr. (Handling Associate Editor: Flavio Nobili)
Clinical Impact of a Second FDG-PET in Atypical/Unclear Dementia Syndromes
Abstract: Diagnosis of atypical/unclear dementia is often difficult and this delays treatment initiation. Several authors have shown that beyond standard dementia workup, 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) reduces the number of unclear diagnoses, leads to earlier treatment, and has a beneficial impact on families. However, it is not uncommon that the FDG-PET findings are equivocal in this setting. For those cases, a repeat FDG-PET may clarify the diagnosis and prevent treatment delay. We retrospectively assessed the clinical impact of a repeat FDG-PET in 59 patients with atypical/unclear dementia syndromes and inconclusive initial FDG-PET. Changes in primary diagnosis, diagnostic confidence, and management following the second FDG-PET were examined. Conducting a second FDG-PET reduced the number of unclear diagnoses from 80% to 34%, led to diagnostic change in 24% of cases, and treatment modification in 22% of patients. Overall, the clinical impact was higher when initial diagnostic confidence was low and the second FDG-PET repeated ≥12 months after the first one. In tertiary care memory clinic settings, when diagnostic incertitude persists despite extensive evaluation and an equivocal FDG-PET, repeating the FDG-PET 12 months later can greatly clarify the diagnosis and improve the care management.
Pages 707-721
Mauro Fà, Hong Zhang, Agnieszka Staniszewski, Faisal Saeed, Li W. Shen, Isaac T. Schiefer, Marton I. Siklos, Subhasish Tapadar, Vladislav A. Litosh, Jenny Libien, Pavel A. Petukhov, Andrew F. Teich, Gregory R.J. Thatcher, Ottavio Arancio (Handling Associate Editor: Giulio Pasinetti)
Novel Selective Calpain 1 Inhibitors as Potential Therapeutics in Alzheimer’s Disease
Abstract: Alzheimer’s disease, one of the most important brain pathologies associated with neurodegenerative processes, is related to overactivation of calpain-mediated proteolysis. Previous data showed a compelling efficacy of calpain inhibition against abnormal synaptic plasticity and memory produced by the excess of amyloid-β, a distinctive marker of the disease. Moreover, a beneficial effect of calpain inhibitors in Alzheimer’s disease is predictable by the occurrence of calpain hyperactivation leading to impairment of memory-related pathways following abnormal calcium influxes that might ensue independently of amyloid-β elevation. However, molecules currently available as effective calpain inhibitors lack adequate selectivity. This work is aimed at characterizing the efficacy of a novel class of epoxide-based inhibitors, synthesized to display improved selectivity and potency towards calpain 1 compared to the prototype epoxide-based generic calpain inhibitor E64. Both functional and preliminary toxicological investigations proved the efficacy, potency, and safety of the novel and selective calpain inhibitors NYC438 and NYC488 as possible therapeutics against the disease.
Pages 723-732
Jamila Ahdidan*, Cyrus A. Raji*, Edgar A. DeYoe, Jedidiah Mathis, Karsten Ø. Noe, Jens Rimestad, Thomas K. Kjeldsen, Jesper Mosegaard, James T. Becker, Oscar Lopez *These authors contributed equally to this work.
Quantitative Neuroimaging Software for Clinical Assessment of Hippocampal Volumes on MR Imaging
Abstract: Background: Multiple neurological disorders including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), mesial temporal sclerosis, and mild traumatic brain injury manifest with volume loss on brain MRI. Subtle volume loss is particularly seen early in AD. While prior research has demonstrated the value of this additional information from quantitative neuroimaging, very few applications have been approved for clinical use. Here we describe a US FDA cleared software program, NeuroreaderTM, for assessment of clinical hippocampal volume on brain MRI. Objective: To present the validation of hippocampal volumetrics on a clinical software program. Method: Subjects were drawn (n=99) from the Alzheimer Disease Neuroimaging Initiative study. Volumetric brain MR imaging was acquired in both 1.5 T (n = 59) and 3.0 T (n = 40) scanners in participants with manual hippocampal segmentation. Fully automated hippocampal segmentation and measurement was done using a multiple atlas approach. The Dice Similarity Coefficient (DSC) measured the level of spatial overlap between NeuroreaderTM and gold standard manual segmentation from 0 to 1 with 0 denoting no overlap and 1 representing complete agreement. DSC comparisons between 1.5 T and 3.0T scanners were done using standard independent samples T-tests. Results: In the bilateral hippocampus, mean DSC was 0.87 with a range of 0.78-0.91 (right hippocampus) and 0.76-0.91 (left hippocampus). Automated segmentation agreement with manual segmentation was essentially equivalent at 1.5 T (DSC = 0.879) versus 3.0 T (DSC = 0.872). Conclusion: This work provides a description and validation of a software program that can be applied in measuring hippocampal volume, a biomarker that is frequently abnormal in AD and other neurological disorders.
Pages 733-741
Maria Bjerke*, Silke Kern*, Kaj Blennow, Henrik Zetterberg, Margda Waern, Anne Börjesson-Hanson, Svante Östling, Jürgen Kern, Ingmar Skoog *These authors contributed equally to this work.
Cerebrospinal Fluid Fatty Acid-Binding Protein 3 is Related to Dementia Development in a Population-Based Sample of Older Adult Women Followed for 8 Years
Abstract: Background: Increased fatty acid-binding protein 3 (FABP-3) levels have been reported in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) FABP-3 has therefore been proposed as a putative marker for dementia. Population-based studies examining whether CSF FABP-3 predicts later development of dementia are lacking. Objective: The aim of this study was to examine CSF levels of FABP-3 in relation to later development of dementia in elderly women and in relation to Aβ42, T-tau, P-tau181, and CSF:serum albumin ratio. Methods: 86 non-demented women aged 70-84 years who participated in the Prospective Population Study of Women in Gothenburg, Sweden took part in a lumbar puncture in 1992-93. CSF-FABP-3, Aβ42, T-tau, P-tau181, and the CSF:serum albumin ratio were measured at baseline. Participants were examined with a neuropsychiatric exam at baseline and at follow-up in 2000. Dementia was diagnosed in accordance with DSM-III-R criteria. Results: Between 1992 and 2000, 8 women developed dementia (4 AD, 3 vascular dementia, 1 mixed vascular dementia and AD). Higher levels of CSF-FABP-3 at baseline were related to development of dementia (OR 1.36 CI [1.05-1.76] p=0.022) and the subtype AD (OR 1.38 CI [1.06-1.82), p=0.019) during follow-up. FABP-3 correlated with CSF T-tau (r= 0.88, p<0.001), P-tau181 (r=0.619, p<0.001), and CSF:serum albumin ratio (r= 0.233, p=0.031), but not with Aβ42 (r= -0.08, p=0.444). Conclusion: CSF FABP-3 may be an early marker for later development of dementia, probably related to neuronal degeneration, but independent of Aβ metabolism.
Pages 743-754
Jun Ku Chung, Eric Plitman, Shinichiro Nakajima, M. Mallar Chakravarty, Fernando Caravaggio, Hiroyoshi Takeuchi, Philip Gerretsen, Yusuke Iwata, Raihaan Patel, Benoit H. Mulsant, Ariel Graff-Guerrero, for the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative
Depressive Symptoms and Small Hippocampal Volume Accelerate the Progression to Dementia from Mild Cognitive Impairment
Abstract: Previous studies have highlighted that decreased hippocampal volume, an early neural correlate of dementia, is commonly observed in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). However, it is unclear whether neurodegenerative and resultant clinical trajectories are accelerated in MCI patients with concomitant depressive symptoms leading to a faster conversion to dementia stages than those who are not depressed. No longitudinal study has investigated whether depressed amnestic MCI (DEP+aMCI) patients show an earlier onset of progression to dementia than non-depressed amnestic MCI (DEP-aMCI) patients and whether progressive hippocampal volume reductions are related in the conversion process. Using data from Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative, we examined 2-year follow-up data from 38 DEP+aMCI patients and 38 matched DEP-aMCI patients and compared their ages of conversion from aMCI to AD and trajectories of progressive hippocampal volume changes. DEP+ and DEP- patients were defined as having baseline Geriatric Depression Scale scores of 5 or above and 0, respectively. DEP+ converters showed earlier ages of conversion to dementia (p = 0.009) and greater left hippocampal volume loss than both DEP- converters and DEP+ non-converters over the 2-year period (p = 0.003, p = 0.001, respectively). These findings could not be explained by changes in total brain volume, differences in their clinical symptoms of dementia, daily functioning, or apolipoprotein E4 genotypes. No difference in conversion rate to dementia or progressive hippocampal volume change was found between DEP+ patients and DEP-patients, which suggested depressive symptoms themselves may not lead to progression of dementia from MCI. In conclusion, there is a synergistic effect of depressive symptoms and smaller left hippocampal volume in MCI patients that accelerates conversion to dementia.
Pages 755-766
Helen Zong Ying Wu, Kwok Leung Ong, Katrin Seeher, Nicola J Armstrong, Anbupalam Thalamuthu, Henry Brodaty, Perminder Sachdev, Karen Mather (Handling Associate Editor: Michael Hornberger)
Circulating microRNAs as Biomarkers of Alzheimer’s Disease: A Systematic Review
Abstract: Background: In recent years, microRNAs (miRNA), a class of non-coding RNA known to regulate protein expression post-transcriptionally, have been recognized as novel biomarkers of diseases. Objective: In this systematic review, we identify miRNAs that are differentially expressed in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and/or mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and evaluate their accuracy as potential blood biomarkers. Methods: Eligible studies of miRNAs in peripheral blood distinguishing patients with AD or MCI from cognitively normal controls were identified through standardized search strategies in Medline, PubMed, and Embase. MiRNAs that were differentially expressed were identified and where available their sensitivity and specificity for AD or MCI extracted from the retrieved studies. Results: Eighteen studies investigated the diagnostic value of miRNAs as peripheral biomarkers of AD/MCI. Twenty miRNAs were significantly upregulated and 32 miRNAs downregulated in AD compared to controls in ten AD studies. Nine miRNAs were consistently dysregulated in more than one study. Of the 8 MCI studies, only one miRNA, miR-132, was consistently upregulated in three independent studies. Of the studies that reported diagnostic accuracy data, the majority of miRNA panels and individual miRNAs had a sensitivity and specificity greater than 0.75. Conclusion: Individual studies suggest that microRNAs can differentiate patients with AD/MCI from cognitively normal controls with modest accuracy. However, the literature is constrained by methodological differences between studies, with few studies assessing the same miRNAs. To become potential biomarkers for AD, further studies with standardized study designs for replication and validation are required. Results from this review may help researchers select candidate miRNAs for further investigation.
Pages 767-781
Teppo Särkämö, Sari Laitinen, Ava Numminen, Merja Kurki, Julene K. Johnson, Pekka Rantanen
Clinical and Demographic Factors Associated with the Cognitive and Emotional Efficacy of Regular Musical Activities in Dementia
Abstract: Recent evidence suggests that music-based interventions can be beneficial in maintaining cognitive, emotional, and social functioning in persons with dementia (PWDs). Our aim was to determine how clinical, demographic, and musical background factors influence the cognitive and emotional efficacy of caregiver-implemented musical activities in PWDs. In a randomized controlled trial, 89 PWD-caregiver dyads received a 10-week music coaching intervention involving either singing or music listening or standard care. Extensive neuropsychological testing and mood and quality of life (QoL) measures were performed before and after the intervention (n = 84) and six months later (n = 74). The potential effects of six key background variables (dementia etiology and severity, age, care situation, singing/instrument playing background) on the outcome of the intervention were assessed. Singing was beneficial especially in improving working memory in PWDs with mild dementia and in maintaining executive function and orientation in younger PWDs. Music listening was beneficial in supporting general cognition, working memory, and QoL especially in PWDs with moderate dementia not caused by Alzheimer’s disease (AD) who were in institutional care. Both music interventions alleviated depression especially in PWDs with mild dementia and AD. The musical background of the PWD did not influence the efficacy of the music interventions. Our findings suggest that clinical and demographic factors can influence the cognitive and emotional efficacy of caregiver-implemented musical activities and are, therefore, recommended to take into account when applying and developing the intervention to achieve the greatest benefit.
Pages 783-795
Pia Jul, Christiane Volbracht, Inge E.M. de Jong, Lone Helboe, Anders Brandt Elvang, Jan Torleif Pedersen (Handling Associate Editor: Naruhiko Sahara)
Hyperactivity with Agitative-Like Behavior in a Mouse Tauopathy Model
Abstract: Tauopathies, such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD), are characterized by formation of neurofibrillary tangles consisting of hyperphosphorylated tau. In addition to memory loss, patients experience behavioral symptoms such as agitation, aggression, depression, and insomnia. We explored the behavioral phenotype of a mouse model (rTg4510) carrying the human tau P301L mutation found in a familiar form of FTD. We tested these mice in locomotor activity assays as well as in the Morris water maze to access spatial memory. In addition to cognitive impairments, rTg4510 mice exhibited a hyperactivity phenotype which correlated with progression of tau pathology and was dependent on P301L tau transgene expression. The hyperactive phenotype was characterized by significantly increased locomotor activity in a novel and in a simulated home cage environment together with a disturbed day/night cycle. The P301L-tau-dependent hyperactivity and agitative-like phenotype suggests that these mice may form a correlate to some of the behavioral disturbances observed in advanced AD and FTD.
Pages 797-807
Angela Winkler, Christian Weimar, Karl-Heinz Jöckel, Raimund Erbel, Nico Dragano, Martina Broecker-Preuss, Susanne Moebus, Dagmar Führer-Sakel, Martha Dlugaj, on behalf the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study Investigative Group (Handling Associate Editor: Barbara Caracciolo)
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone and Mild Cognitive Impairment: Results of the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study
Abstract: Background: Although some studies reported on the association of serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentration and cognition, only one population-based study investigated the association of TSH concentration and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Objective: To investigate the gender-specific association of low- and high-normal TSH concentrations with MCI in euthyroid participants. Methods: Analysis sample 1 included 2,563 euthyroid participants (aged 50-80 years) from the second examination of the population-based Heinz Nixdorf Recall study. Gender-specific TSH quintiles (Q1 low, Q2-Q4 middle, Q5 high TSH concentration) were determined and group comparisons of age- and education-adjusted mean scores were performed for all cognitive subtests. Analysis sample 2 included 378 participants with MCI and 931 cognitively normal participants. MCI was diagnosed according to previously published MCI criteria. Multivariate logistic regression models were performed using TSH quintiles (Q2-Q4 as reference) to assess the association of low- and high-normal TSH concentration with MCI. Models were performed unadjusted and adjusted for sociodemographic and cardiovascular risk factors. Results: Group comparisons showed significant differences only in the immediate recall of the verbal memory task in women. Only women showed a strong association of high-normal TSH concentration with MCI (unadjusted: odds ratio 2.09, 95% confidence interval 1.29-3.37, full adjusted: 1.86, 1.06-3.27). There was no association with low-normal TSH concentration in women and no association of either low- or high-normal TSH concentration with MCI in men. Conclusions: These results suggest that women with high-normal TSH concentration might be at higher risk of cognitive decline. This needs to be confirmed in the longitudinal analysis.
Pages 809-818
Laura Saarelainen, Heidi Taipale, Marjaana Koponen, Antti Tanskanen, Anna-Maija Tolppanen, Jari Tiihonen, Sirpa Hartikainen
The Incidence of Benzodiazepine and Related Drug Use in Persons with and without Alzheimer’s Disease
Abstract: Background: Benzodiazepines and related drugs (BZDR) are occasionally used to treat certain symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, the risks related to BZDR use are high in older persons. Although frequent BZDR use has been reported in persons with AD, no previous study has focused specifically on the incidence of BZDR use in this population. Objective: We investigated the incidence of BZDR use in persons with and without AD during a five-year follow-up. Methods: The Finnish nationwide, register-based MEDALZ cohort includes all AD cases who received a clinically verified AD diagnosis in 2005–2011 (n=70,718) and their matched comparison persons. Incidence of BZDR, including benzodiazepines (lorazepam, oxazepam, temazepam, alprazolam, chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, and nitrazepam) and Z-drugs (zolpidem and zopiclone), use was investigated in the cohort from two years before to three years after the diagnosis of AD. Further, initial BZDRs were investigated. Results: The incidence of BZDR use was higher in persons with AD starting from 12 months before the diagnosis and peaked at six months after the diagnosis of AD (incidence rate ratio [IRR]= 2.6, 95% confidence interval [CI]= 2.5–2.8). Benzodiazepines were more frequently initiated by persons with AD, with the incidence peaking at six months after the diagnosis (IRR=4.5, 95% CI=4.1–4.9) and remaining over three times higher than in comparison persons until three years after the diagnosis. Conclusion: Early symptomatic treatment with BZDRs is contrary to AD treatment guidelines. As BZDRs impair cognition, the observed early treatment with BZDRs may complicate the monitoring of AD treatment effectiveness.
Pages 819-828
Clément Pimouguet, Mélanie Le-Goff, Debora Rizzuto, Claudine Berr, Karen Leffondré, Karine Pérès, Jean François Dartigues, Catherine Helmer
Effect of Early Referral to Specialist in Dementia on Institutionalization and Functional Decline: Findings from a Population-Based Study
Abstract: Background: Although early diagnosis has been hypothesized to benefit both patients and caregivers, until now studies evaluating the effect of early dementia diagnosis are lacking. Objective: To investigate the influence of early specialist referral for dementia on the risk of institutionalization and functional decline in Activity of Daily Living (ADL). Methods: Incident dementia cases were screened in a prospective population-based cohort, the Three-City Study, and initial specialist consultation for cognitive complaint was assessed at dementia diagnosis. Proportional hazard regression and illness-death models were used to test the association between specialist referral and, respectively, institutionalization and functional decline. Results: Only one third of the incident individuals with dementia had consulted a specialist for cognitive problems early (36%). After adjustment on potential confounders (including cognitive and functional decline) and competing risk of death, participants who had consulted a specialist early in the disease course presented a higher rate of being institutionalized than those who did not (Hazard Ratio = 2.00, 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.09-3.64). But early specialist referral was not associated with further functional decline (HR = 1.09, 95% CI: 0.71-1.67). Conclusions: Early specialist referral in dementia is associated with increased risk of institutionalization but not with functional decline in ADL. These findings suggest that early care referral in dementia may be a marker of concern for patients and/or caregivers; subsequent medical and social care could be suboptimal or inappropriate to allow patients to stay longer at home.
Pages 829-844
Ye Shan*, Dan-Dan Wang*, Yu-Xia Xu, Chu Wang, Lan Cao, Yun-Sheng Liu, Cui-Qing Zhu (Handling Associate Editor: Zheng Ying) *These authors contributed equally to this work.
Aging as a Precipitating Factor in Chronic Restraint Stress-Induced Tau Aggregation Pathology, and the Protective Effects of Rosmarinic Acid
Abstract: Stress is an important risk factor of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). It has been evidenced that stress could induce tau phosphorylation and increase tau insolubility in brain; however, little is known about the interactional effect of stress with aging on tauopathy. Therefore, we explored the effects of aging on stress-induced tauopathy and the potential mechanism in mouse model of chronic restraint stress (CRS). Here we found that in general, the level of phosphorylated tau (P-tau) was higher in brain of middle-aged mice than that in adult mice under physiological conditions. CRS-induced tau phosphorylation and its insolubility were more prominent in middle-aged mice. The increase of AT8-labeled insoluble P-tau was dramatic in middle-aged mice, which was highly ubiquitinated but did not form PHF structures. The levels of chaperones were relatively lower in middle-aged mice brain; CRS further reduced the expression, especially for HDJ2/HSP40. CRS also suppressed the expression of Pin1, the peptidylprolyl cis/trans isomerase, in middle-aged mice but not in adult mice. Downregulation of HSP40 or Pin1 caused an increase of transfected extraneous tau in 293 cells. Rosmarinic acid (RA) could effectively suppress the elevation of P-tau and insoluble P-tau formation induced by CRS, and reversed the abnormal changes of chaperones and Pin1 particularly in middle-aged mice. Taken together, our findings provided evidence that aging could be a promoting factor in stress-induced tauopathy, which was relevant with malregulation of chaperones and Pin1, and RA might be a promising beneficial agent for stress-induced tauopathy.
Pages 845-851
S. Duke Han, Patricia A. Boyle, Bryan D. James, Lei Yu, David A. Bennett (Handling Associate Editor: David Libon)
Mild Cognitive Impairment and Susceptibility to Scams in Old Age
Abstract: Background: Falling victim to financial scams can have a significant impact upon social and financial wellbeing and independence. A large proportion of scam victims are older adults, but whether older victims with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) are at higher risk remains unknown. Objective: We tested the hypothesis that older persons with MCI exhibit greater susceptibility to scams compared to those without cognitive impairment. Methods: Seven hundred and thirty older adults without dementia were recruited from the Rush Memory and Aging Project, a community-based epidemiologic study of aging. Participants completed a five-item self-report measure of susceptibility to scams, a battery of cognitive measures, and clinical diagnostic evaluations. Results: In models adjusted for age, education, and gender, the presence of MCI was associated with greater susceptibility to scams (B=0.125, SE=0.063, p-value=0.047). Further, in analyses of the role of specific cognitive systems in susceptibility to scams among persons with MCI (n=144), the level of performance in two systems, episodic memory and perceptual speed abilities, were associated with susceptibility. Conclusions: Adults with MCI may be more susceptible to scams in old age than older persons with normal cognition. Lower abilities in specific cognitive systems, particularly perceptual speed and episodic memory, may contribute to greater susceptibility to scams in those with MCI.
Pages 853-861
Sicong Tu, Cristian E. Leyton, John R. Hodges, Olivier Piguet, Michael Hornberger (Handling Associate Editor: Sharon Naismith)
Divergent Longitudinal Propagation of White Matter Degradation in Logopenic and Semantic Variants of Primary Progressive Aphasia
Abstract: Background: Clinico-pathological distinction of primary progressive aphasia (PPA) can be challenging at clinic presentation. In particular, cross-sectional neuroimaging signatures across the logopenic (lvPPA) and semantic (svPPA) variants are difficult to establish, with longitudinal profiles showing greater divergence. Objective: Assess longitudinal propagation of white matter degradation in lvPPA and svPPA to determine disease progression over time, and whether this reflects distinct underlying pathology. Method: A cohort of 27 patients with dementia (12 lvPPA; 15 svPPA) and 12 healthy controls were assessed at baseline and 1-year follow-up on the Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination-Revised and Sydney Language Battery. Diffusion weighted images were collected at both time-points and analyzed for longitudinal white matter change using DTI-TK and TBSS. Results: LvPPA patients showed a significant decline in naming and repetition, over 1 year, while svPPA patients declined in naming and comprehension. Longitudinal imaging revealed widespread bilateral degradation of white matter tracts in lvPPA over a 1-year period with early involvement of the left posterior inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF). SvPPA demonstrated focal left lateralized white matter degradation involving the uncinate fasciculus (UF) and anterior ILF, propagating to the right UF with disease progression. Conclusions: LvPPA and svPPA cohorts showed distinct longitudinal cognitive and white matter profiles. We propose differences in multi-centric and focal white matter dysfunction in lvPPA and svPPA, respectively, reflect underlying pathological differences. The clinical relevance of white matter degradation and mechanisms underlying disease propagation are discussed.
Pages 863-873
Ingeborg W.M. van Uden, Helena M. van der Holst, Anil M. Tuladhar, Anouk G.W. van Norden, Karlijn F. de Laat, Loes C.A. Rutten-Jacobs, David G. Norris, Jurgen A.H.R. Claassen, Ewoud J. van Dijk, Roy P.C. Kessels, Frank-Erik de Leeuw
White Matter and Hippocampal Volume Predict the Risk of Dementia in Patients with Cerebral Small Vessel Disease: The RUN DMC Study
Abstract: Background: The relationship between cerebral small vessel disease (SVD) and dementia has been studied without considering white matter (WM) volume, the microstructural integrity of the WM surrounding the SVD, and grey matter (GM). Objective: We prospectively investigated the relationship between these structures and the risk of dementia, and formed a prediction model to investigate which characteristics (macro- or microstructural) explained most of the variance. Methods: The RUNDMC study is a prospective cohort study among 503 non-demented participants with an age between 50 and 85 years at baseline, with baseline assessment in 2006 and follow-up assessment in 2012. Two were lost to follow-up (yielding a 99.6% response-rate). Cox regression analysis was used, to calculate hazard ratios for dementia, of baseline MRI characteristics. Tract-Based Spatial Statistics (TBSS) analysis was used to assess the added value of microstructural integrity of the WM. Results: Mean age at baseline was 65.6 years (SD 8.8) and 56.8% was male. 43 participants developed dementia (8.6%), resulting in a 5.5-year cumulative risk of 11.1% (95%CI 7.7-14.6). Low WM and hippocampal volume are significant predictors for dementia. WM, WM hyperintensities, and hippocampal volume explained most of the variance. TBSS analyses showed no additional value of diffusion parameters. Conclusion: WM and hippocampal volume were the main predictors for the development of incident dementia at 5-year follow-up in elderly with SVD. There was no additional diagnostic value of the diffusion tensor imaging parameters on top of the macrostructural characteristics.
Pages 875-885
Sharpley Hsieh, Cristian E. Leyton, Jashelle Caga, Emma Flanagan, Cassandra Kaizik, Claire M. O’Connor, Matthew C. Kiernan, John R. Hodges, Olivier Piguet, Eneida Mioshi (Handling Associate Editor: Andrea Slachevsky)
The Evolution of Caregiver Burden in Frontotemporal Dementia with and without Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Abstract: Background and aims: Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) represent a disease spectrum. Caregiver burden in subtypes of FTD has not yet been directly compared with those patients who have co-existent FTD and ALS (ALSFTD). Method: Perceived caregiver burden was evaluated using the short Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) in patients with behavioral-variant FTD (bvFTD, n=21), semantic dementia (SD, n=18), and ALSFTD (n=15) at the initial clinical presentation and follow-up assessments. The Mini-Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination (M-ACE) and the Motor Neuron Disease Behaviour Scale (MiND-B) were also used. Linear mixed effects models examined longitudinal changes on the ZBI, M-ACE, and MiND-B across groups. Results: Burden at baseline was highest for the bvFTD group. Longitudinally, perceived burden increased for the SD and ALSFTD groups whereas in bvFTD, the level of burden which was high at baseline and remained high with disease progression. The severity of abnormal behaviors at baseline, as assessed by the MiND-B, correlated with baseline levels of caregiver burden and further accounted for 23% of the variance in caregiver burden at clinical follow-up. Conclusions: The trajectory of perceived burden differs across the FTD-ALS spectrum, with SD and ALSFTD caregivers demonstrating an increased burden that develops over time, compared to a persistently high level for bvFTD caregivers, evident throughout the disease course. The evolution of burden in these three syndromes likely reflects the initial presentation and clinical characterization that develops with time. Psycho-education programs for caregivers, which provide better coping strategies for challenging behaviors, may reduce levels of burden experienced with disease progression.
